Ambuvachi

Ambuvachi, a celebration of the Mother Goddess Devi, is a rite observed in most of north and central India, but most elaborately in Bengal.
During four days in the Hindu month of Ashadha (June–July on the Common Era calendar), just before the Indian rainy season begins, the earth goddess (Devi) is said to menstruate in order to prepare herself for being fertile. During this period, all plowing, sowing, and farm work is suspended, as the Devi Bhagavatam notes, “If anyone digs ground on the day of Ambuvaˆchıˆ, one remains in hell for four Yugas.” Also, during these days, widows may be required to observe special taboos, as they are not involved in procreation.

Observance of Ambuvachi is focused on seven temples located across northern India (with one in what is now Pakistan), where body parts of Devi are believed to have fallen. For example, the Kamakhya Temple in Assam is, according to the Kalika Purana, believed to have been constructed on the site where her genitalia fell.

References
Dubois, Abbe J. A. Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Translated from the French by Henry K. Beauchamp. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959. Harshananda, Swami, Hindu Festivals and Sacred Days. Bangalore: Ramakrishna Math, 1994. The Srıˆmad Devıˆ Bhaˆgawatam. Translated by Swami Vijn˜anananda. Posted at http:// www.sacred-texts.com/hin/db/index.htm. Accessed June 15, 2010.

Amarnath Yatra

Amarnath is a shrine to the Hindu deity Shiva, located in a cave in the Indian state of Kashmir on the side of a mountain roughly 7,500 feet in elevation.
The remote site is some 80 miles from Shrinagar, the Kashmir capital, and takes some effort to visit, but within the cave is a Shiva lingum-shaped piece of ice-covered snow that is visible at the far end of the cave. This structure is considered a “self-generated” Shiva Lingum, created by nature rather than human hands. By its side are two additional ice lingams, that of Parvati and of their son Ganesh.

According to stories told of the cave, it is here that Shiva revealed the secret of immortality to his spouse Parvati. She had been persistent in her demands to know it, and Shiva chose the remote cave to ensure that no human heard it. As he traveled to the cave, he abandoned Nandi (the bull upon which he rode) at Pahalgam, left Ganesh at what is now Mahaganesh Hill, and deposited the five elements at Panjtarni. Once in the cave, he ordered Rudra to spread fire that would eliminate every living thing in and around the cave. All life was destroyed except a pigeon egg. During his narration of the secret, the pigeon egg, which had remained safe from the fire because it was beneath the deerskin on which Shiva sat, heard Shiva’s talk to Parvati. The two pigeons born from this egg became immortal, and pilgrims to the cave often spot the immortal pigeons incubated by the Lord Shiva himself.

It is said that at a later date, a Muslim shepherd named Buta Malik received a sack of coal from a holy man at this site. When he arrived home, he discovered that the coal was now gold. Simultaneously, the icy Shiva Linga appeared in the famous cave.

The principal pilgrimage to this shrine is in the full moon of Shravana (July– August). The full pilgrimage, a widely observed custom since 1850 CE, takes a total of 40 days from the lowlands upward and back. Many local residents had operated informally to assist pilgrims when, in 1996, a number of pilgrims died in an accident during their trek. This incident led to the formation of what is now the Bhole Bhandari Charitable Trust, a nonprofit trust that works with the local government in setting the most auspicious date for the annual pilgrimage and assisting those who make it for the first time.

References
Hassnain, F. M., Yoshiaki Miura, and Vijay Pandita. Sri Amarnatha Cave, the Abode of Shiva. New Delhi: Nirmal Publishers & Distributors, 1987. Singh, Karan. The Glory of Amarnath. Bombay: Shanti Svarup Nishat, 1954. “Sri Amarnath Ji Yatra.” Bhole Bhandari Charitable Trust. Posted at http:// www.amarnathyatra.org. Accessed June 15, 2010.

Amalaka Ekadashi

Amalaka Ekadashi is the Vaishnava Hindu fast on the 11th day of the waxing moon in the lunar month of Phaguna.
On this occasion, the celebration is combined with the veneration of trees, a derivation of the belief that on this day, Hari (Lord Vishnu) dwells near the amalaka tree. The amalaka or Indian gooseberry tree (Phyllanthus emblica) is a tree well known for its medicinal properties. All parts of the plant, but especially its fruit, are used in Indian/Ayurvedic medicine. It has been a major source of vitamin C.

As on all ekadashi days, a fast is observed on this day, and the priests at the temples are given gifts. Worship is, however, directed toward the tree. Following ablutions in the morning hours, the priests ceremonially bathe and water the tree and then lead a puja designed for the occasion.

References
Kelly, Aidan, Peter Dresser, and Linda Ross. Religious Holidays and Calendars. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics, 1993. Malla, Bansi Lal. Trees in Indian Art, Mythology, and Folklore. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2000.

Alphonse de Ligouri, Saint’s Day of St. (August 1)

Alphonse de Ligouri (1696–1787) was the founder of the Redemptorist order and one of the most influential moral theologians in Roman Catholic history.
He was born into a noble family in Naples, received a good education in law (receiving his degree at the age of 16), and practiced for several years.

Upon losing a suit against the Grand Duke of Tuscany involving a large sum, Alphonse became disenchanted, withdrew, and started living an abstemious, religious life. Influenced of Bishop Tommaso Falcoia (1663–1743), he became committed to the religious life and founded the Congregation of the Holy Redeemer, an order that received both men and women as members. The order focused on work among the poor, and it was approved by Pope Benedict XIV (r. 1740–1758) in 1749–1750.
Alphonse’s talents were recognized in 1862 when he was named bishop of Saint Agatha of the Goths, a position he held until his retirement in 1775.

Alphonse deviated from the flamboyant preaching that dominated his era and chose a style that he saw as speaking more directly from the heart. He also opposed the rigorist, puritanical moral teachings of the Jansenists, offering instead a morality of the heart, which he published in his two-volume Theologia Moralis (1753, 1755). His approach is termed “equiprobism,” in which he sought a middle way between moral rigorism and laxity.

Alphonse may be more remembered for his spiritual devotional writings which remain in print to the present and have been translated into a number of languages, such as Visits to the Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Virgin (1745), Novena of the Heart of Jesus (1758), The Means of Prayer (1759), and The Way of Salvation (1767). He stressed God’s mercy and desire for repentance over any exercise of His wrath. His approach also led to his assuming a role in the revival of veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary. He authored several Marian classics, including The Glories of Mary, Marian Devotion, and The True Spouse of Jesus Christ.
He was beatified in 1816 and was canonized in 1839. He was declared a Doctor of the Church in 1871.

References
Aphonsus Maria de Liguori. Selected Writings. Edited by Frederick M. Johns. New York: Paulist, 1999. Aphonsus Maria de Liguori. The Way of Salvation and Perfection. Edited by Eugene Grimm. St. Louis, MO: Redemptorist Fathers, 1926. Jones, Frederick M. St. Alphonse de Liguori. Westminster, MD: Christian Classics, 1992. Rey-Mermet, The´odule. Moral Choices: The Moral Theology of Alphonsus Liguori. Liguori, MO: Liguori, 1998.

Alphabet Day (May 24)

The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates the Saint’s Day of Sts. Cyril and Methodius on May 11 of the old Julian calendar, which is May 24 on the new revised Julian calendar and the Common Era calendar.
During 1991, Russia, which for over half a century repressed the Russian Orthodox Church, as the Soviet Union was being dissolved, designated May 24 as a joint holiday by the emerging Russian government and the revived Russian Orthodox Church. Officially the Day of Slavic Culture and Literature, it is popularly known as Alphabet Day and celebrates the establishment of the Cyrillic alphabet, named for Saint Cyril, as the official alphabet of the Russian language.

The rise of the Cyrillic alphabet was not immediate. Introduced into Bulgaria in the middle of the ninth century, it became important in the emergence of the Bulgarian nation and facilitated the development of Bulgarian literature and culture. Russia adopted Christianity officially as the state religion in 988. The development of both Christianity and Russian culture was slowed between the 12th and 14th centuries when Russia was dominated by the Tartars, who destroyed many of the churches. The Tartars were finally turned back following the battle of Kulikov in 1380, and Bulgaria proved a major resource for rebuilding Russian orthodoxy. About this time, a variant of the Cyrillic alphabet call Abur or Old Permic was introduced into Russian by the missionary priest Stepan Khrap (1340–1396), now known as Saint Stephen of Perm. His alphabet was used until the 17th century, when Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725) mandated the use of the present Cyrillic alphabet. The work of Saint Stephen of Perm is remembered on April 26, which is both his saint’s day and Old Permic Alphabet Day.

Following the proclamation of the Day of Slavic Culture and Literature in 1991, little was done in the way of celebration. The Russian Orthodox Church was still relatively weak, many in government were still atheists, and the day conflicted with the end of the university year. However, toward the end of the first decade of the new century, government attitudes toward the revived Orthodox Church mellowed. In 2010, the patriarch of the Russian church invited the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I to join in the celebrations with the backing of the government. They were held at the recently dedicated Cathedral of Christ the Savior (the largest Orthodox church in the world). The 2010 celebration signaled a new level of church-state cooperation in Russia.

References
Odynova, Alexandria. “Kremlin and Church Unite on Alphabet Day.” Moscow Times (May 25, 2010). Posted at http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/kremlin -and-church-unite-on-alphabet-day/406714.html. Accessed May 27, 2010. Tachiaos, Anthony-Emil N. Cyril and Methodius of Thessalonica: The Acculturation of the Slavs. Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2001.

All Souls Day (November 2)

All Souls Day is a primarily Western Christian day of remembrance of all people who have died in the faith. It is primarily observed by Roman Catholics but is carried on the liturgical calendar by Anglicans and a few other Protestant groups, though its meaning radically changes in those cases. Anglicans and Lutherans generally call it the Commemoration of the Faithful Departed.

Roman Catholic perspectives on the day are somewhat tied to their peculiar understanding of the afterlife. It is believed that most Christians upon death move on to a place/state called purgatory, in which they go through a further process of punishment and purification in order to attain the sanctified state that would allow them to enter heaven (the presence of God). It is generally felt that prayer and participation in the Eucharist by those still in this life may significantly assist them in completing their time in purgatory. While anyone may engage in those activities at any time, All Souls Day has been set aside especially to assist those in purgatory.

The practice seems to have arisen in the ninth century among some monastic orders, as they began to remember the deceased members of their communities. It later spread more generally.

Among the more interesting variations of the Catholic All Souls celebration is the Day of the Dead celebration (Dı´a de los Muertos), held throughout Latin America and those of South and Central American heritage residing in North America. Believers create private altars honoring the deceased upon which one places a skull made of sugar, flowers (preferably marigolds), and an array of foods for the consumption of the deceased. The altar with the items on it is taken to the cemetery as gifts for those in the family who have died. As most North Americans do not celebrate All Souls Day, they frequently confuse the Day of the Dead with Halloween (October 31).

Protestants jettisoned belief in purgatory in the 16th century. For the few who retained All Souls Day on their calendar, it became a time to recall those whose memory was still alive in the life of the present community and to celebrate the lives and faithfulness of the mass of church members. It was also a time for church members to remember those of their own family and friends who had died.

Most Protestants do not celebrate All Souls Day. Part of the rationale for dropping it has been their understanding of “saint” as a term to describe all church members, both those who have become exemplars of the faith and those less accomplished in demonstrating the Christian life. It is the Protestant belief that even the most saintly stand in need of God’s grace to sanctify them, and in and of themselves neither possess nor demonstrate any special merit.

Eastern Orthodox Christians also do not celebrate All Souls Day. Rather, at several points through the year, they have designated special days to remember the departed. These days usually occur on Saturday, in remembrance of Christ’s day in the tomb. The Saturdays immediately before the beginning of Lent and Pentecost are most notably used to remember the deceased.

References
Marchi, Regina M. Day of the Dead in the USA: The Migration and Transformation of a Cultural Phenomenon. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Pfatteicher, Philip H. New Book of Festivals and Commemorations: A Proposed Common Calendar of Saints. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2008. Wright, N. T. For All the Saints? Remembering the Christian Departed. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2004.

All Saints Day (November 1)

In 835, Pope Gregory IV (r. 827–844) set November 1 as a day to honor all the saints (at a time where most people acknowledged as saints were martyrs).
Among the more magnificent architectural wonders in Rome at the time was the former Pantheon, which had been transformed into a church honoring the Blessed Virgin Mary and all the martyr saints. At the time of the consecration by Pope Boniface IV (r. 608– 614) on May 13 (in either 610 or 611), All Saints Day was placed on the church’s calendar on a day that had been a popular holiday in Pagan Rome, May 13 being the culmination of the ancient feast of Lemuria in which Romans would ritually seek to drive the malevolent spirits of the dead from their homes and lives.

It was also evident to any student of the church’s history that most of the martyrs remained nameless, even as the church had risen to a place of prominence and leadership on their blood. What is not evident is, as he consecrated a chapel in the Basilica of Saint Peter to all the saints, how much Gregory was aware of the fact that some in the Pagan lands to the north saw November 1—and more so, the evening that introduced it—as a time of the dead and communication with them.

As the veneration of saints and the theological speculation on purgatory as a place of intermediate suffering of the deceased who are not yet purified and sanctified to a point that they can reach heaven rose, All Saints Day took on an increasing importance as a memorial to all the saintly persons who had not found a place on the church’s calendar. The church came to believe that the saints represented a storehouse of grace that became available to the average believer as the church opened it to them, and that such grace could be used to free suffering souls from purgatory. (It was the observation that the church’s use of this belief in purgatory for the selling of indulgences to free the deceased from suffering had been corrupted that became the initial issue leading to the Protestant Reformation.)

For Catholics, All Saints Day is a day of obligation, meaning that the faithful should attend a Mass and refrain from activities that distract from the atmosphere of worship. After the Reformation, Anglicans and Lutherans continued to observe All Saints Day, but it was discarded by the churches in the Reformed church tradition such as the Presbyterians. It has regained some prominence in the atmosphere of the 20th-century ecumenical movements, but is often shifted to the Sunday nearest to November 1. It competes with Halloween, a secularized holiday that emerged at the end of the century as one of the most celebrated in the United States, from where its popularity has been exported to many parts of the world.

References 
Cunningham, Lawrence S. The Meaning of Saints. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980. Hawley, John Stratton, ed. Saints and Virtues. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Woodward, Kenneth. Making Saints: How the Catholic Church Determines Who Becomes a Saint, Who Doesn’t, and Why. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.

Ali ibn Abi Talib, Commemoration Days for

Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 597–661), the son-in-law of Muhammad and the fourth caliph of the Muslim community, would be designated the first Imam in the lineage of leaders of the Shi’a Muslim community.
Ali’s career was somewhat suppressed after his father-in-law died. Though married to Muhammad’s daughter Fatima, he was passed over as the successor to lead the young community. He dutifully recognized the first three caliphs—Abu Bakr (d. 634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (d. 644), and Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656)—and finally was elected the fourth caliph, but only after Uthman’s murder. Ali was, in turn, assassinated in 661 after what proved a tumultuous reign.

Ali’s demonstrated courage in the midst of the battle at Badr (624) had won him many supporters, and later contributed to his hero-like status among the Shi’as. The Shi’a leadership concluded that he was the rightful successor to Muhammad, that he had been appointed by the Prophet, and that Ali’s commission was carried by his descandants. Angry at Ali’s murder, they became even more defiant enemies of the Sunni Muslims after the massacre of Ali’s son al-Husayn along with his companions at the Battle of Karbala (680).

As the Shi’a Muslims established themselves in what is now Iraq, they turned Ali’s shrine into a pilgrimage site. Today they celebrate his birthday (on the 13th day of the Muslim month of Rajab); the anniversary of his appointment by Muhammad to lead the Muslim community (the feast of Ghadir Khumm on the 18th day of the month of Dhu al-Hijjah); and his death (on the 21st day of the month of Ramadan). During these days, Shi’a Muslims will gather at the mosque and have a variety of activities that might include a communal feast, a program concerning the life of Imam Ali, reading from the Qur’an, and a time for prayer.

References
Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. The History of al-Tabari. Translated by C. E. Bosworth et al. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. Hafri, S. H. M. The Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam. London: Longman, 1979. Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Shadhan, Ibn. One Hundred Virtues of Ali ibn Abi-Talib. Qum, Iran: Ansariyan Publications, 2006.

Aldersgate Day

Possibly the most famous words ever penned by John Wesley (1703–1791), the founder of the Methodist movement, were recorded in his journal for May 24, 1738. A priest in the Church of England, he had been raised in a Christian home and had followed his father and older brother into the priesthood.
However, there was something lacking in his Christian experience, and one evening, he went to a lay-led religious gathering in London. He found the program to center on a reading of Luther’s preface to the Epistle to the Romans. “About a quarter before nine,” Wesley later recounted, “while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone, for salvation; and an assurance was given me that He had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death.”

Often confused with a conversion experience, Wesley, already a Christian, had in fact experienced an enlightenment that gave him confidence and a sense of assurance of his salvation. The movement he founded would preach that all believers could share that same sense of confidence, a belief embodied in a popular hymn written by the blind Methodist songwriter Fannie J. Crosby that harks back to Wesley’s account.

Blessed assurance, Jesus is mine!
Oh what a foretaste of glory divine!
Heir of salvation, purchase of God,
Born of His Spirit, washed in His blood.
(The Methodist Hymnal. Nashville et al. The Methodist Publishing House, 1939, 238)

Through the years since Wesley’s death, Methodists have recognized May 24 as the day Wesley experienced the assurance of his salvation. In the last generation, American Methodists have collapsed Aldersgate Day into a more general reflection on the history of the Methodist movement. In 2004, the General Conference, the highest legislative body in the United Methodist Church, also designated May 24 as Heritage Day and encouraged Methodists to celebrate the Sunday prior to May 24 as either Heritage Day, Aldersgate Sunday, or a combination thereof.

The celebration of Aldersgate Sunday is encouraged but not mandated by the church, and local congregations may or may not commemorate it from one year to the next. Aldersgate Day/Sunday is also celebrated by Methodists in England where Wesley lived most of his life.

References
Clark, Elmer T., ed. What Happened at Aldersgate. Nashville, TN: Methodist Publishing House, 1938. Green, V. H. H. John Wesley. New York: University Press of America, 1987. Heitzenrater, Richard P. Wesley and the People Called Methodists. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1995. Wesley His Own Biographer: Selections from the Journals of the Rev. John Wesley with Numerous Illustrations and the Original Account of His Death. London: C. H. Kelly, 1891

Akshay Tritiya (Jain)

Akshay Tritiya is a Hindu holy day that falls during the waxing moon of the month of Vaishakh. For Hindus, it is a day of both festivities and fasting. The word “akshay” means un-decaying, and it refers to the belief that the benefits from the devotion and piety exhibited on this day will never dissolve away.

Akshay Tritiya, also known as Varshi Tapa, is also a holy day for Jains. As with most Jain holy days, it is a time for fasting. A primary focus for celebration on this day is the Gujarati sacred site Shatrunjay, near the city of Palitana, Gujarat. There are hundreds of Jain temples in the immediate area, the most sacred of which is on the top of the hill that is dedicated to the first Tirthankar, Lord Adinath (a.k.a. Rishabdeva). Rishabhdeva is said to have completed a continuous fast of 13 months and 13 days on Akshay Tritiya.

Jains believe that in the legendary past, a Jain monk and his disciple, both of whom could fly and knew the secrets of creating gold, founded this holy site having been attracted by its twin peaks, both rising 2,000 feet above sea level. Over the years, numerous saints and teachers have chosen to conclude their earthly life (attain nirvana), including the first Tirthankar, who also was named the patron saint of Palitana.

Pilgrims on Akshay Tritiya will complete their fast by sipping sugar-cane juice in the cool shadow of the mountain. Some believe that in the future, a massive deluge will occur on earth that will destroy everything except the holy community on top of the Shatrunjay hills.

References
“Shatrunjay Jain Temple in Gujarat.” India-site. Posted at http://www .indiasite.com/gujarat/shatrunjaysscenicspirituality.html. Accessed July 15, 2010. Singh, Narendra K., ed. Encyclopedia of Jainism. 30 vols. New Delhi, India: Anmol, 2001. Wiley, Kristi L. Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.

Akshay Tritiiya

Akshay Tritiiya, also known as Parashurama Jayanti, the appearance day of Lord Parashurama, is a Vaishnava Hindu holiday that has gathered numerous meanings as it has been associated with diverse events from Hindu mythology. It is celebrated on the third day of the waxing moon of the Hindu month of Vaishakh (May on the Common Era calendar). Among its important commemorations, it is believed to be the day that the legendary sage Veda Vyasa, considered the author of the Indian epic Mahabharata, began to dictate the book to the elephantheaded deity Ganesh, Many Vaishnava Hindus consider Veda Vyasa as an avatar (incarnated form) of the deity Vishnu. Ganesh appears in most Hindu temples as the god who removes obstacles.

Primarily, however, Akshay Tritiiya is also considered to be the birthday of Parashurama, the sixth incarnation of the god Vishnu. Parashurama was a famous warrior, and most of his adventures involved fighting. Among his battles was his opposition to the advancing ocean, his blocking of which saved the lands of Konkan and Malabar. The most prominent temples to Parashurama are found along the western coast of India from Gujarat to Kerala, including the ones at Shivpuri-Akkalkot, Khopoli (Maharashtra), and Fort Songadh (Gujarat).

In northern India, Akshay Tritiiya is referred to as the day the river Ganges, the most holy in India, is supposed to have descended to the earth from the heavens. Thus it is an auspicious day to take a bath in the river.
Akshay Tritiiya is generally observed with fasting and the performance of pujas (worship). According to the Vedic scriptures, knowledge gained and/or charity done on this day will be most fruitful. Many think of it as a lucky day for the starting of a new business, or a new venture in life such as a marriage. Many people will delay purchases until this day because of its lucky associations. The day is also celebrated in Bengal, where Ganesh and the goddess Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, are the special objects of attention. Some say that even Kubera, the treasurer of the gods and the richest of deities, will pray to Lakshmi on this day. Attention to Kubera and Lakshmi is directed through a lengthy Kubera Lakshmi Puja before an image of Lakshmi and the Sudarsana Kubera Yantra, an image symbolic of Kubera.

References
“Akshay Trittiya.” Soul Lens. Posted at http://soullens.blogspot.com/2008/05/akshay -trittiya.html. Accessed April 15, 2010. Mehta, Gita. Eternal Ganesha. New York: Vendome Press, 2006. Pattanaik, Devdutt. Lakshmi: The Goddess of Wealth and Fortune—An Introduction. Mumbai, India: Vakils Feffer & Simons, 2003.

Aki Matsuri (October)

Aki Matsuri is a traditional Shinto festival that has become a secularized Japanese national celebration analogous to Thanksgiving Day in the United States.
It was traditionally a day built around the local Shinto shrines, in which the shrines’ portable shrine was processed around the village, and people use the occasion to thank the divine forces (kami) for the abundance of the harvest. As those who carried the shrine visited each house, they delivered wishes for happiness to those who dwelt there. The day begins with the purification of the shrine by the priest and the dressing in traditional clothes by the participants.

There is not one autumn festival in Japan (and the Japanese diaspora), but a variety of local festivals held at different sites with different local emphases and on different dates throughout the month. Local dates are often adjusted from year to year to hold the festival on a weekend. In Kyoto, the Aki Matsuri includes a celebration of the founding of the city (October 22). Among the larger of the festivals are those held at Akita, Aichi, and Nihonmatsu. At these locations, the procession to the local Shinto shrine is held at night and includes hundreds of lanterns that wind through the street accompanied by music.

Hachiman, a popular deity in Japan who is seen as both the Shinto god of war and the country’s divine protector as well as a Buddhist bodhisattva, is the focus of a number of autumn festivals, including the ones at Himeji in Hyogo prefecture and Takayama in Gifu prefecture. The later begins with a ceremony at the Sakurayama Hachimangu Shrine, followed by a procession of 11 portable shrines (called mikoshi) that are taken through the town to allow Hachiman to visit the homes in each neighborhood. In the evening, the shrines are on display and may be viewed by the light of numerous paper lanterns.
Nagasaki is also home to one of the larger autumn festivals, the Nagasaki Kunchi, that originated in the 17th century.

References
Chavez, Amy. “Autumn Festivals in Japan.” Planet Tokyo. Posted at http://www .planettokyo.com/news/index.cfm/fuseaction/story/ID/72. Accessed July 15, 2010. Littleton, Scott. Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Plutschow, Herbert. Matsuri: The Festivals of Japan. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon Press, 1996. Shumacher, Mark. “Hachiman & Hachimangu¯ Shrines.” Buddhism and Shintoism in Japan A to Z Dictionary of Japanese Sculpture & Art. Posted at http://www.onmark productions.com/html/tsurugaoka-hachiman.shtml. Accessed June 15, 2010.

Aizen Summer Festival (June 30-July 2)

The Aizen Summer Festival is one of three summer celebrations based in Osaka, Japan, unique for being held at a Buddhist temple. Its role in the festival survived through the Meiji Restoration and the subsequent privileging of Shinto over Buddhism as this temple dates to the sixth century. It was a gift to Osaka by the pioneering Japanese Buddhist Prince Shotoku (a.k.a. Shotokutaishi, 574–622). The festival originated in the 18th century.

The Aizen Temple was a public clinic for the poor, one of four such temples built by Shotoku. Its monks grew plants, which were then used as medicinal aids for the poor. Shotoku also installed a statue of Queen Srimala (Queen Shoman), an Indian queen mentioned in the Srimaladevi Sutra, also known in English as The Lion’s Roar of Queen Srimala. Later, Aizen-Myoo, the god of good matchmaking and happy marriages, was also installed. Thus the temple became known as Shoman-in Aizen-do. Rites for the summer fest are led by a group of priests led by the chief priests of Shitennoji at Taho Pagoda (a nearby temple in Osaka).

Women have a key role in the festival. At the same time, many females coming to the event wear yukatas, the light summer kimonas that have again become popular in Japan as street wear. As the three-day festival starts, a group of Aizen girls wearing a yukata designed for the festival moves between the temple and the local train station shouting out a chant about the coming event. The festival includes a parade in which local girls play the role of geisha girls in their kimonas coming for worship at the temple. They arrive on elaborately decorated palanquins. Among the yukata-wearing women accompanying the palanquins are a contingent from the Osaka Yuhigaoka Gakuen Fashion Department.

Meanwhile, at the temple, the women will organize what is known as the “palanquin shake,” held in front of Taho Pagoda. Twelve Aizen girls on the palanquins are raised above the crowd to their delight and shaken, their back-and-forth movement being said to ward off the evil. In the crowd are many people from the local dyeing and apparel industry who come to pray to Aizen-Myoo. “Aizen” in Japanese means indigo dye.

References 
“Naniwa Summer Festivals.” Posted at http://www.osaka-info.jp/en/ofc/201006/ index.html. Accessed June 15, 2010. Plutschow, Herbert. Matsuri: The Festivals of Japan. Richmond, Surrey, UK: Curzon Press, 1996.

Airing the Classics

Also known as the Double Sixth, because it occurs on the sixth day of the sixth lunar month, Airing the Classics is a minor Buddhist observance adhered to in some Buddhist centers in China. It is based on a disaster that overtook a shipment of Buddhist scriptures on their journey from India to China. The boat carrying the texts was overturned, and all the books had to be spread out to dry.

Through the centuries, it became the practice on this day (which is in the middle of summer) for monasteries to remove their library books from the shelves and examine them for any mold or insect damage. This practice has been largely neglected in the modern world of air conditioning and humidity control.

References
Burkhardt, V. R. Chinese Creeds and Customs. Hong Kong: South China Morning Post, 1982.

Ahoi Ashtami

Ahoi or Hoi Mata (known as Sanjhi in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) is a Hindu goddess whose domain is the family.
She is seen as an aspect of the female Shakti energy and primarily worshipped by females. She most often appears on the walls of rural homes where her image will be painted during different festivals.

Across northern India, women will worship her primarily on Hoi Ashtami, during the month of Kartika (October–November on the Common Era calendar). On Ahoi Ashtami, mothers who have sons will keep fast on this day and pray for their long life.

A story is told of a mother of seven sons who went to the forest to bring soil for the renovation of her home. In the process, she dropped her axe and hurt a lion cub. The cub was killed, and even as she felt the guilt of the accident, she continued in her task of gathering soil. Over the next year, her seven sons died, and she came to believe that it was because of the death of the cub. She finally confessed what had happen to a neighbor, who informed her that by confessing her act, she had almost negated the effect of it. The neighbor suggested that she also pray to the goddess Ahoi Mata. Following the suggestion, the woman fasted on the ashtami (eighth day) of the waxing moon in the month of Kartika, and eventually her seven sons were returned to her.

Women observing Ahoi Ashtami rise before sunrise and first go to the local temple for prayers. She will then fast all day until the Moon appears. During the day, she will place a bowl of water before the picture of Ahoi Mata. She wraps a red thread around the bowl and smears the edges. Women will gather and an elderly lady will read out the story of Ahoi Mata to those assembled.
Offerings are made to the goddess—money, some sweets—and later in the day, the offering will be given to the children or the elderly.

References 
“Ahoi Ashtami 2010.” Hindu Blog.

Agua, La Fiesta de (October)

In the mountains of the Peruvian Andes, the traditional religion of the indigenous people continues to be practiced alongside the Christianity taught by the Roman Catholic Church. 
The primary deities of the ancient faith are Inti, the sun god, also known as the patron deity of the former Inca Empire, and Pachamama, the mother of the world. The Incas considered Pachamama as a fertility goddess and thus is related to both planting and harvesting. She also caused earthquakes. In popular thought, she is often interchangeable with the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Pachamama has a special place in the village of San Pedro de Casta. Each October, she becomes the focus of the local Fiesta de Agua (Festival of Water). Preparation for the fiesta is accomplished by the cleaning and repairing of the irrigation ditches that connect the fields with the nearby Carhuayumac River. Then, on the first Sunday in October, after the invocation to Pachamama to flood the growing area with water, the gate at the river’s edge is opened and water begins to flow anew to the fields. A group of horsemen lead the water as it begins its journey from the river.

Though isolated, some 80 miles from Lima, the festive occasion attracts a large number of visitors. The arrival of the water at its destination is the occasion for a village-wide party with fresh foods and ample liquid refreshments, music, and dancing for the rest of the day. It is notable as an openly Pagan festival in an otherwise Catholic land.

References
Thompson, Sue Ellen, and Barbara W. Carlson, comp. Holidays, Festivals and Celebrations of the World Dictionary. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics, 1994.

Agnes, Feast Day of St. (January 21)

Agnes (d. c. 303) is one of several young female Christians who suffered martyrdom during the wave of persecutions during the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian (284– 305).
Though little is known of her life, she refused to marry, choosing to remain a virgin and live her earthly life as a bride of Christ. Her death in Rome was one among many that made a significant impression on the general public. She was but 12 years old when killed. Avariety of stories subsequently grew up around the event. When her parents visited her tomb, for example, it was said that they had an apparition of a group of young virgins, including their daughter clad in rich vestments accompanied by a lamb.

Following her death, her body was retrieved and buried in a cemetery a short distance outside of what was then Rome’s city limits. A small chapel was erected over her grave. Diocletian died in 305 CE, and a decade later, Christianity was decriminalized and began its rise to become the privileged religion by the end of Constantine’s rule.

Among the miracle stories attributed to Agnes was one concerning Constantine’s eldest daughter. Afflicted with leprosy, she prayed at Agnes’s tomb and was reputedly healed.

Over the centuries, Agnes’s shrine would be enlarged and finally emerge as the Basilica of Saint Agnes Outside the Walls. It remains home to the relics of Saint Agnes, which reside in a silver sarcophagus beneath the altar. Agnes came to be regarded as the patron saint of young women with a special role as their protector of bodily purity. She is usually pictured as a young woman holding a lamb with either a palm leaf or a sword in the other hand. She is also identified with white (for purity) roses.

Over the centuries, Agnes became associated with various practices by which on the Eve of Saint Agnes, young girls would attempt to divine the identity of their future husbands. After following these practices, they would go to sleep and see their mate in a dream. As John Keats wrote in his famous poem, “The Eve of Saint Agnes”:
They told her how, upon St Agnes’ Eve,
Young virgins might have visions of delight,
And soft adorings from their loves receive
Upon the honey’d middle of the night,
If ceremonies due they did aright;
As, supperless to bed they must retire,
And couch supine their beauties, lily white;
Nor look behind, nor sideways, but require
Of Heaven with upward eyes for all that they desire.

The Basilica of Saint Agnes is the site of a unique celebration annually on the Feast of Saint Agnes. The nearby Trappist monastery selects two lambs, which become the center of an elaborate blessing ceremony. They are then taken for a brief audience with the pope and, at the end of the day, are given to the care of the Benedictine nuns of the church dedicated to the martyr Santa Cecilia in Rome. The nuns will care for the lambs during the next months, until Maundy Thursday during Holy Week. The lambs are at that point sheared of their wool. Their job now done, their wool is used to make a particular ecclesiastical item called a pallium. A pallium fits around the neck of the wearer, and only the pope and archbishops (and on rare occasion, a bishop) are allowed to wear them. They are a sign of episcopal authority, and until he receives his pallium from the pope, an archbishop cannot exercise jurisdiction over his assigned territory. Should he move from one archdiocese to another, he must receive a new pallium. The wool of the Saint Agnes lambs will make a dozen pallia each year.

Once woven, the new pallia are placed in Saint Peter’s Basilica on June 28, the eve of the Feast of SS. Peter and Paul, when an all-night vigil is kept. They are placed on an altar near the tomb of Saint Peter; thus the pallium come to represent the strength associated with Peter and the virginal meekness of Agnes. After the Feast of SS. Peter and Paul, the pallia are stored in Saint Peter’s until needed.

References 
Butler, Alban. Lives of the Saints. Rockford, IL: TAN Books and Publishers, 2009. Smith, Aloysius J. Life of St. Agnes, Virgin and Martyr. London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1906.

Advent

The beginning of the Christian Liturgical Year in Western churches, Advent marks the four Sundays before Christmas. The word “advent” comes from the Latin “adventus,” which means “coming.” This season just before Christmas is associated with the “coming” of Jesus as Messiah and marks a time of penitence, preparation, and anticipation.

Advent always contains four Sundays, beginning on the Sunday nearest to November 30 (the feast of Saint Andrew the Apostle). Consequently, Advent may begin as early as November 27, but always ends on December 24. If Christmas Eve falls on a Sunday, the last Sunday of Advent falls on that day, as Christmas Eve begins at sundown.

We do not know when the celebration of Advent was first introduced into the Church, but the first clear reference of its celebration comes in the sixth century. Prior to this time, we find references in the church fathers about homilies, celebrations, and fasts resembling our current Advent season.

Increasingly, in addition to the element of suffering recognized in Advent observances, the season is marked by a spirit of expectation and anticipation. The faithful express a yearning for deliverance by God from the evils of the world following the pattern of Israelite slaves in Egypt. Part of the expectation anticipates a judgment on sin and a calling of the world to accountability before God.

The Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches have set liturgies for Advent emphasizing these themes. Although less scripted, most other denominations have Advent practices that incorporate similar motifs. The traditional color of Advent is purple, the color of penitence. Purple also symbolizes royalty and is associated with the Advent of the King. As well, the purple of Advent is also the color of suffering used during Lent and Holy Week, connecting Jesus’s birth and death.

A wreath of evergreens serving as a stand for five candles is used in most Advent celebrations. Evergreens remind us of eternal life, embodied in Jesus, the Light of the world coming into the darkness. The circle signifies God’s eternity and endless mercy. Candles mark the light of God coming into the world. The circle usually contains three purple candles and a fourth pink candle, which is lit on the third Sunday of Advent to signify the joy of anticipation for Christ’s imminent birth.
While themes vary from church to church and year to year, the first candle is traditionally the candle of Expectation or Hope. The remaining three candles may be organized around characters or themes as a way to unfold the story and direct attention to the celebrations and worship in the season. So, for example, the sequence for the remaining three Sundays might be Bethlehem, Shepherds, and Angels; or Love, Joy, and Peace; or John the Baptist, Mary, and the Magi. The center white candle is the Christ Candle, signifying his incarnation as the heart of the season. It is traditionally lit on Christmas Eve.

Spreading through North America (from Germany) in the late 20th century was the custom of the Advent calendar. Given to children, the card contains 25 flaps, one of which is opened daily from December 1 to Christmas Day. In the more elaborate versions, the opening of the flap reveals a small gift or piece of candy.

References 
Adam, Adolf. The Liturgical Year: Its History and Meaning after the Reform of the Liturgy. Collegeville, MN: Pueblo Books, 1978. Hickman, Hoyt L., et al. The New Handbook of the Christian Year. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1992. Mershman, Francis. “Advent.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. Stookey, Laurence Hull. Calendar: Christ’s Time for the Church. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1996. White, James F. Introduction to Christian Worship. Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 2001.

African Methodist Quarterly Meeting Day (August)

Wilmington, Delaware, is the home of one of the most unique gatherings of African Americans that date to the early 19th century. The Big August African Methodist Quarterly Meeting day celebrates the establishment of the African Union Methodist Protestant Church, founded in 1813 as the African Union Church, the first independent African American denominations.

African Americans had been present at the founding of what is now Asbury United Methodist Church, the first Methodist congregation in the city, but in 1805, a set of disagreements between the white and black members led to the founding of the Ezion Methodist Church by the black members. Eight years later, that congregation split over continuing its relationship to the larger, whitecontrolled Methodist Episcopal Church. Peter Spencer emerged as the leader of the separatist group. He led a group out of Ezion to found the independent African Union Church, which subsequently emerged as a new denomination with congregations throughout the Northeast.

The new church continued the practice of having quarterly church meetings—a time to conduct business, receive reports, and have a sacramental service and testimony meeting (which Methodists called a love feast). The quarterly meeting held in August began to grow in importance as other congregations of the African Union were founded. It turned into a weekend-long event modeled on camp meetings, but one led by Africans for Africans. Held after the planting season and before the harvest, it was open to both free blacks and slaves. After the Civil War, it continued as a religious gathering, but increasingly took on the characteristics of a general fair and celebration for African Americans in the Mid-Atlantic states.

In recent years, the African Union Methodist Protestant Church has failed to maintain a level of growth equal to either the black church or the black community in general, and the Quarterly Meeting has become a one-day event in August but survives as the oldest such event for African Americans. Although it no longer draws the crowds it did a generation ago, the Big August Quarterly has experienced a resurgence in recent years even as it has become independent of its roots.

References 
Melton, J. Gordon. A Will to Choose: The Origins of African American Methodism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. Nelson, Alice Dunbar. Big Quarterly in Wilmington. Wilmington, DE: Author, 1932.

Adi Da Samrajashram, Anniversary of Adi Da’s First Footstep on (October 17)

Adidam is a spiritual community founded by Adavita Vedanta teacher Franklin Jones (1939–2008), better known by his religious name Avatar Adi Da Samraj, believed by his followers to have been a fully enlightened guru (teacher).
Each year in October, they begin a three-month period punctuated by the commemoration of the most significant events in a three-month holiday cycle that begins with the celebration of Adi Da’s receiving citizenship from Fiji on October 23. In 1983, Adi Da moved to Fiji. This was the outgrowth of a decision he had made a few years earlier to change his method of teaching his disciples. He had announced his role as human incarnation of the Invisible Divine. He subsequently initiated a small group of his devotees into an esoteric order and announced that he would begin to work these few for the sake of all. He also began an intense search for a Hermitage. That search led him first to Hawaii and then in 1983 to Fiji. For six months they wandered the Fijian Islands, when news came that a patron-devotee had purchased the Fijian island of Naitauba. Adi Da and his entourage landed at the island on October 27, 1983.

He had found his Hermitage and the place where he would do most of his spiritual work for the rest of his life. He saw it as a sacred place that would also have particular salvic import for humanity. He would also apply for and receive citizenship from the nation of Fiji.

His landing and taking his first step on Naitauba is now seen by his disciples as one of the more important moments of his human life. October 27 is a day for reflection on the meaning of the Hermitage and his movement to Fiji. Two additional important events would happen in Fuji now remembered as the Day of Adi Da’ Avataric Divine Self-Emergence and the day of the Native Establishment Beyond East and West.

References
“An Introduction to the Sacred History of Adi Da Samraj’s Divine Work.” Beezone. Posted at http://www.beezone.com/AdiDa/adidam/introsacredhistoryadidam.html. Accessed March 15, 2010. Jones, Franklin (as Adi Da Samaj). See My Brightness Face to Face: A Celebration of the Ruchira Buddha, Avatar Adi Da Samraj, and the First 25 Years of His Divine Revelation Work. Middleton, CA: Dawn Horse Press, 1997. Lee, Carolyn. The Promised God-Man Is Here: The Extraordinary Life-Story, The “Crazy” Teaching Work, and The Divinely “Emerging” World-Blessing Work of The Divine World-Teacher of the “Last-Time,” Ruchira Avatar Adi Da Samraj. Middleton, CA: Dawn Horse Press, 1998. Lowe, Scott. DA: The Strange Case of Franklin Jones. Walnut, CA: MSAC Philosophy Group, 1996.

Adalbert of Prague, Saint’s Day of St. (April 23)

Adalbert of Prague (c. 956–997), a martyr from the era prior to the establishment of Christian dominance of eastern Europe, was born into a Czech noble family. He received a good education, including a decade under an outstanding scholar of his day, Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg (d. 981 CE). When his teacher died, the student took his mentor’s name.

The young Adalbert returned home, was ordained, and, in 892, was named bishop of Prague. He left his life of relative wealth and lived an austere existence, which provided the base from which he could call for reform and the discontinuance of preChristian practices, including polygamy and slavery. After seven years, he resigned his post and went to Rome to live as a hermit. His rest was short, however, as in 993, Pope John XV (r. 985–996) called him fromhis retirement and sent him back to Prague to resume his episcopal office. Upon his return, he became involved with the quarrels among the royal families, which in 995 led tomost of his brothers being killed. He publicly condemned those who killed his family members and was forced to flee to Hungary. While there, he baptized Geza, the grand prince who ruled the Hungarians, and his son Stephen. Geza would begin the process of Christianizing Hungary, which Stephen would largely complete and in the process be recognized as a saint himself.

Adalbert subsequently went to Poland, where the king provided him resources for his next mission, to convert neighboring Prussia. Near Gdansk, he ran into a problem. Following a common practice of Christian missionaries, he chopped down a couple of oak trees. Many Pagans believed the trees to house spirits who should not be angered. Christians cut the trees in a demonstration of the powerlessness of such imagined spirits. In this case, it was not the spirits to be feared, but the believers, who had Adalbert arrested, and in April 997, he was executed for his crime.

To the Pagans, he was just a criminal. To the Christian king who had sponsored his mission, he was a saintly martyr. The king paid a high price to recover Adalbert’s body.
Adalbert’s body, minus its head, was placed in the church at Gniezno. He was quickly considered and named a saint. A generation later, some nobles from Bohemia came to Gniezno and stole a body, which they believed to be Adalbert’s. The Poles later said that they took the wrong body. They also claimed that in 1128, they recovered Adalbert’s head and reunited it with the rest of his relics. Today, both cathedrals at Prague and Gniezno have a shrine that they claim holds Adalbert’s bones. The Gniezno cathedral has another unique feature, large doors with reliefs that tell the story of Adalbert’s life.

In April 1997, the 1,000th anniversary of Saint Adalbert’s martyrdom was widely commemorated in the Czech Republic, Poland, Germany, and Russia. In the midst of the celebrations, Pope John Paul II (r. 1978–2005) led a worship service at Gneizno attended by a number of heads of state and an estimated million believers.
Adalbert has been named a patron saint of Poland, Hungary, Bohemia (the Czech Republic), and Prussia.

References
Attwater, Donald, and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. Petiska, Eduard. The Lives of St. Wenceslas, St. Ludmila and St. Adalbert. New York: Martin, 1994. Starr, Eliza Allen. Patron Saints. Baltimore: John B. Piet & Co., 1883.

Acorn Feast

The Hupa people reside in the Hupa Valley in Northern California, through which the Trinity River flows prior to its junction with the Klamath River.
The United States designated their land a reservation in 1864. By the end of the century, there were fewer than 500 residents. The Hupa had two main ceremonies each year, the First Salmon Rite in the spring and the Acorn feast in the fall, both foods being major components in their diet. The Acorn feast gained added significance as being one of the few ceremonies among Native Americans of the Northwest that were overseen and led by women.

The Acorn fest would begin as the nuts began to drop from the local oak trees each fall. A female officiant would gather the first acorns to reach the ground, cook them, and prepare them with appropriate prayers and ritual actions. When the ritual was completed, the acorns would be offered to the group for consumption.

The ritual appears to have been abandoned through much of the 20th century, as the Hupa people adopted Christianity and acorn flour became less important in their diet; but in 1989, for the first time in more than 50 years, it was again revived. It is now seen as part of their cultural heritage.

References
Goddard, Pliny E. Life and Culture of the Hupa. Berkeley: University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, 1903–1904. Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin. Encyclopedia of Native American Religions. New York: Facts on File, 2000.

Aboakyer Festival

The Aboakyer (animal catch) Festival is a celebration of the Simpafo (or Effutufo) people in and around Winneba, a town on the southern coast of Ghana.
The festival commemorates the settlement of the people in the area following a migration from the western Sudan in the middle of the first millennium CE. Once in the area, they provided a place for their deity at a site name Penkye, and they called their god Penkyi Otu.

The people today tell the story that soon after their arrival in their present home, while consulting the deity, they were told by their priest, who served as a mediator between the deity and the people, that they should annually sacrifice a member of the royal household. This message brought great distress upon the people’s leadership and was appealed. In a later message, the deity suggested that in place of the royal sacrifice, they should capture a wild cat and behead it in the presence of the god. The people complied and hunted down a wild cat. In the process, however, they lost a number of their young men. Thus they again appealed to the deity, and this time Penkyi Otu agreed to accept a mature bush buck (of a local species of deer).

To this day, in the annual deer hunting festival held each May, the people keep this story alive and repeat it to the young people as they sit around the firs at night and sing about it in their songs. The Aboakyer Festival is a major annual celebration in Ghana.

References
Brown, Kwesi Ewusi. “Social Conflicts in Contemporary Effutu Festivals.” MA thesis, Bowling Green State University, 2005. Wyllie, Robert W. “Pastors and Prophets in Winneba, Ghana: Their Social Background and Career Development.” Africa, 44, no. 2 (1974): 186–93.

Abhidhamma Day

Abhidhamma Day is a Theravada Buddhist celebration observed primarily in Myanmar (Burma) that has grown out of a tradition concerning the origins of the Abhidhamma, a major segment of the Pali Canon, the holy texts of Theravada Buddhism. 
The Abhidhamma literature is a collection of commentaries on the sutras, the books generally believed to be the discourses of the Buddha. One tradition suggests that the Abhidhamma developed when the Buddha visited his deceased mother in Tusita heaven and taught her about the Dharma, during the Rainy Season Retreat (Vassa Retreat) seven years after his enlightenment. He did this each night, and during the next day, he repeated the same teachings to Sariputra. Sariputra memorized and recited the entire comments to his disciple, who in turn passed them down generation by generation until they were recited at the Third Council of Buddhism, held at Pataliputra in 251 BCE. At that time, all seven books were recited accurately by Revata, and then later put in written form.

According to this tradition, following his enlightenment, the Buddha was filled with compassion for the various deities (devas) and brahmas were believed to dwell there. By this time, his mother, who had passed away shortly after his birth, had been reborn in the Tusita heaven, one of the heavenly realms in Buddhist cosmology. There she was now known as Santusita Deva. He thus went to the celestial abode and preached the Abhidhamma to both his mother and the assembly of the heaven’s divine and semi-divine beings. The preaching activity continued for three months.

When the Buddha completed his work in heaven, he asked permission of the king of the celestial realm to return to his work in the human realm. On hearing this, the king made available three stairways, one made of silver, one of gold, and one of ruby.

The stairways originated at the mythical Mount Meru and returned the Buddha to the human world at Sankisa, a town in central Uttar Pradesh, India. The Buddha selected the middle (ruby) stairway, and as he descended, he was accompanied by devas who played musical instruments and fanned him as he descended to earth. The brahmas on the silver stairway held a white umbrella to shade the Buddha.

Upon his return, the Buddha made it possible for the humans awaiting his return to see the heavenly beings who accompanied him and the celestial world they inhabited. Simultaneously, the heavenly beings saw the humans who had gathered to welcome the Buddha home.

Abhidhamma Day, celebrating the return of the Buddha after having completed his heavenly task, is held on the full moon of the seventh month of the Burmese lunar year (usually the full moon in October on the Common Era calendar), which coincides with the end of the rainy season retreat for the monks. On that day, Burmese Buddhists will gather at temples to offer lights before the statues of the Buddha. In some temples, it may be a day for holding the precepts receiving ceremony, in which the priest will invest and the congregation will accept the Five Precepts (Panca Sila), which are the five elements of right action: no killing, no stealing, no sexual immorality, no lying, and no taking of intoxicants. These five precepts form a basic Buddhist behavioral code (similar to the Ten Commandments in the Jewish and Christian traditions).
Abhidhamma Day is also known as Thadingyut.

References
Gorkom, Nina van. Abhidhamma in Daily Life. London: Triple Gem Press, 1997. Nyanatiloka. A Guide through the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1971. Thera Nyanaponika, Thera. Abhidamma Studies. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1965.

‘Abdu’l-Baha´, Ascension of (November 28)

The Ascension of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´, like the Day of the Covenant (November 26), is a Baha´’ı´ holy day honoring ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ (1844–1921), who succeeded Baha´’u’lla´h (1819–1892), prophet-founder of the Baha´’ı´ Faith, and led the Baha´’ı´ community from 1892 to 1921. ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ fulfilled a triple role, in that he was not only Baha´’u’lla´h’s designated successor, but was authorized by Baha´’u’lla´h as the inerrant interpreter of the latter’s teachings and was also regarded as the paragon, or perfect exemplar, of Baha´’ı´ ethics, virtues, and wisdom.

The Ascension of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ commemorates the death—and, retrospectively, the life—of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´, who passed away quietly in his home on November 28, 1921, in Haifa, Palestine (now Israel), at the age of 77. ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ was well known in Palestine and abroad. One instance of this will illustrate the point: Immediately upon learning of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s death, Winston Churchill, then British secretary of state for the colonies, telegraphed to the High Commissioner for Palestine, Sir Herbert Samuel, who was the highest-ranking official in the country, instructing him to “convey to the Bahai Community, on behalf of His Majesty’s Government, their sympathy and condolence on the death of Sir ‘Abdu’l Baha´ ‘Abbas.” Here, reference to the title “Sir” refers to the knighthood of the British Empire that was conferred on ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ at a ceremony in the garden of the military governor of Haifa on April 17, 1920, for ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s humanitarian work in Palestine during World War I.

Arrangements for the funeral were made by ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s sister, Bahı´yyih Kha´num. The funeral procession for ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ took place on November 29, 1921. An estimated 10,000 townspeople joined together in the procession, acclaimed as the largest and most memorable funeral event the city of Haifa had seen. The casket was carried from ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s house, at the foot of Mount Carmel, to a garden facing the Shrine of the Ba´b, approximately midway up the northern slope of Mount Carmel. The procession itself took two hours for the casket to be carried a distance of just under a mile. Describing the procession, Shoghi Effendi (1898–1957), grandson of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ and the Guardian of the Baha´’ı´ Faith (1921–1957), wrote, in part:

The coffin containing the remains of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ was borne to its last resting-place on the shoulders of His loved ones. The corte`ge which preceded it was led by the City Constabulary Force, acting as a Guard of Honor,behind which followed in order the Boy Scouts of the Muslim and Christian communities holding aloft their banners, a company of Muslim choristers chanting their verses from the Qur’a´n, the chiefs of the Muslim community headed by the Muftı´, and a number of Christian priests, Latin, Greek and Anglican. Behind the coffin walked the members of His family, the British High Commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel, the Governor of Jerusalem, Sir Ronald Storrs, the Governor of Phoenicia, Sir Stewart Symes, officials of the government, consuls of various countries resident in Haifa, notables of Palestine, Muslim, Jewish, Christian and Druze, Egyptians, Greeks, Turks, Arabs, Kurds, Europeans and Americans, men, women and children. The long train of mourners, amid the sobs and moans of many a grief-stricken heart, wended its slow way up the slopes of Mt. Carmel to the Mausoleum of the Ba´b (Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, 313).

At the funeral ceremony itself, nine eulogies, eloquent and moving, were given by dignitaries representing the Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities. The Mufti of Haifa, Shaykh Muh˙ ammad Mura´d, lamented the loss of Haifa’s great benefactor: “Abdul-Baha was great in all the stages of his life. He was genius itself, high in character and had the best reputation. ... To whom shall the poor now look? Who shall care for the hungry? and the desolate, the widow and the orphan?” (See Bagdadi, Star of the West [1922]; and Balyuzi, ‘Abdu’l-Baha´, 466–72.) ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ had great compassion for the poor and ministered to their needs practically every afternoon of his life in Haifa, even on his wedding day.

Bahı´yyih Kha´num opened ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s Will and Testament to see if it contained any instructions for the burial. Since no specific instructions were given, she decided to inter him in a place of enduring honor. ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s casket, after mourners had paid their respects, was interred in the Shrine of the Ba´b, in a vault beneath the floor of the north central room, next to the very room where the Ba´b’s remains are entombed.

The governor of Jerusalem, Sir Ronald Storrs, commented: “I have never known a more united expression of regret and respect than was called forth by the utter simplicity of the ceremony.” Sir Herbert Samuel wrote: “A great throng had gathered together, sorrowing for his death, but rejoicing also for his life” (Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, 312).
For several days after, some 50 to 100 of the poor were fed each day at ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s house, culminating, on the seventh day, in a mass distribution of grain. On the 40th day after ‘Abdu’l-Baha´’s passing, a memorial feast was held in accordance with Muslim customs, and additional eulogies were given.
Obituaries were published in major newspapers in the Middle East, Europe, the United States, and India, such as: Times (London), November 30, 1921 (“ ‘Abdul Baha was a man of great spiritual power and commanding presence and his name was held in reverence throughout the Middle East and elsewhere”); New York World, December 1, 1921; Daily Mirror, December 2, 1921; Le Temps, the leading French paper, December 19, 1921; Times of India, January 1922; and others. Locally, the Haifa newspaper, Annafir (December 6, 1921), published an obituary that carried the headline: “The Most Great Calamity—The Departure of the Personification of Humanitarianism, Abdul-Baha Abbas” (Bagdadi, Star of the West, 259–67).
The term “Ascension,” of Christian origin, is a reverential term, implying that the person referred to, by virtue of a high spiritual station, “ascended” to heaven and dwells in Paradise. For Baha´’ı´s, ‘Abdu’l-Baha´, although not a prophet, occupied a unique and pivotal station.

At such commemorations, Baha´’ı´s typically gather together in an assembly hall or private home (depending on the size of the local Baha´’ı´ community) and, in a dignified atmosphere, respectfully recite or chant prayers and passages from the sacred Baha´’ı´ Writings. A special “Prayer revealed by ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ and now recited by his loved ones at his hallowed shrine” was translated by Shoghi Effendi in January 1922. This “Tablet of Visitation” for ‘Abdu’l-Baha´ captures the quintessence of his character, expressed in this supplication: “Lord! Give me to drink from the chalice of selflessness; with its robe clothe me, and in its ocean immerse me.” For Baha´’ı´s, this prayer is especially significant by virtue of this promise preceding the prayer: “Whoso reciteth this prayer with lowliness and fervor will bring gladness and joy to the heart of this Servant; it will be even as meeting Him face to face” (Baha´’ı´ Prayers, 234).

References 
Bagdadi, Dr. Zia M., trans. “The Most Great Calamity—The Departure of the Personification of Humanitarianism, Abdul-Baha Abbas.” Star of the West 12.17 (January 19, 1922): 259–67. Baha´’ı´ Prayers: A Selection of Prayers Revealed by Baha´’u’lla´h, the Ba´b, and ‘Abdu’lBaha´. Wilmette, IL: Baha´’ı´ Publishing Trust, 1991. Balyuzi, Hasan M. ‘Abdu’l-Baha´: The Centre of the Covenant of Baha´’u’lla´h. London: George Ronald, 1971. Shoghi Effendi. God Passes By. Wilmette, IL: Baha´’ı´ Publishing Trust, 1979. Shoghi Effendi and Lady Blomfield. The Passing of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´. Haifa: Rosenfeld Brothers, 1922. Taherzadeh, Adib. The Covenant of Baha´’u’lla´h. Oxford: George Ronald, 1992. Walbridge, John. “The Ascension of ‘Abdu’l-Baha´.” In Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time, 245–47. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996.